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Indian History Timeline (இந்திய வரலாற்றின் காலவரிசை)

Due to the rich cultures and civilizations that existed on this subcontinent, Indian history is a topic of interest to many, including foreigners. The history of India can be studied under its political, cultural, religious, or economic aspects.

Indian History Timeline (இந்திய வரலாறு காலவரிசை)​

Chronologically, Indian History can be classified into three periods – Ancient India, Medieval India, and Modern India.

Ancient India (பண்டைய இந்தியா) (Pre-history to 700 AD)​

The Indian subcontinent saw activities of Proto-humans (Homo erectus) about 2 million years ago and Homo sapiens from 70,000 BC. However, they were gatherers/hunters. The first inhabitants of the Indian subcontinent might have been tribal-like Nagas (North-East), Santhals (East-India), Bhils (Central India), Gonds (Central India), Todas (South India), etc. Most of them speak Austric, pre-Dravidian languages like Munda and Gondvi. Dravidians and Aryans are believed to be immigrants who came to the subcontinent later.

Based on the stone/metal tools people used, Ancient India can be further studied under other headings like Paleolithic, Mesolithic, Neolithic, and Chalcolithic periods.

Prehistoric Periods​

Paleolithic Period (பழைய கற்காலம்) (2 million BC – 10,000 BC)

  • Tools made of limestone.
  • Ostrich eggs.
  • Important Paleolithic sites: Bhimbetka (MP), Hunsgi, Kurnool Caves, Narmada Valley (Hathnora, MP), Kaladgi Basin.

Mesolithic Period (இடைக்கற்காலம்) (10,000 BC – 8,000 BC)

  • Major climatic change occurred.
  • Domestication of animals, i.e., cattle rearing, started.
  • Microliths found at Brahmagiri (Mysore), Narmada, Vindhya, Gujarat.

Neolithic Period (புதிய கற்காலம்) (8000 BC – 4,000 BC)

  • Agriculture started.
  • Wheel was discovered.
  • Inamgaon = An early village.
  • Important Neolithic Sites: Burzahom (Kashmir), Gufkral (Kashmir), Mehrgarh (Pakistan), Chirand (Bihar), Daojali Hading (Tripura/Assam), Koldihwa (UP), Mahagara (UP), Hallur (AP), Paiyampalli (AP), Maski, Kodekal, Sangana Kaller, Utnur, Takkala Kota.
note

Megalithic Sites: Brahmagiri, Adichanallur.

Chalcolithic Period (செம்புக்காலம்) (4000 BC – 1,500 BC)

  • Copper Age. Can be considered a part of the Bronze Age. (Bronze = Copper + Tin).
  • Indus Valley Civilization (2700 BC – 1900 BC).
  • Also cultures at Brahmagiri, Navada Toli (Narmada region), Mahishadal (Bengal), Chirand (Ganga region).

Iron Age (இரும்புக் காலம்) (1500 BC – 200 BC)​

  • Vedic Period (Arrival of Aryans i.e. 1600 BC – 600 BC) - Nearly 1000 years (Basic books of Hinduism, i.e., Vedas were composed, may be written down later).
  • Jainism and Buddhism.
  • Mahajanapadas – Major Civilization after Indus Valley – on the banks of river Ganga.
  • Magadha empire – Bimbisara of Haryanka Kula.
  • Sisunaga dynasty – Kalasoka (Kakavarnin).
  • Nanda empire – Mahapadma-Nanda, Dhana-Nanda.
  • Persian-Greek: Alexander 327 BC.

Mauryan Empire (மௌரியப் பேரரசு) (321-185 BC)​

Important rulers of the Mauryan Empire: Chandra Gupta Maurya, Bindusara, Ashoka.

Post-Mauryan Kingdoms (மத்திய இராச்சியங்கள்)​

  • Sunga (181-71 BC), Kanva (71-27 BC), Satavahanas (235-100 BC), Indo-Greeks, Parthians (19-45 AD), Sakas (90 BC-150 AD), Kushanas (78 AD).
  • South Indian Kingdoms – Chola, Chera, Pandyas (300 BC).

Gupta Empire (குப்தா சாம்ராஜ்யம்) (300 AD – 800 AD): The Classical Period​

An important ruler of the Gupta period: Samudra Gupta (Indian Napoleon).

Post-Gupta or Contemporary Gupta​

  • Harshavardhana, Vakatakas, Pallavas, Chalukyas. Also, Hunas, Maitrakas, Rajputs, Senas, and Chauhans.

Medieval India (இடைக்கால இந்தியா) (700 AD – 1857 AD)​

  • 800-1200 AD: The Tripartite struggle – Pratiharas, Palas, and Rashtrakutas.
  • Attack of Muhammed Bin Kassim (712 AD).
  • Rise of Islam and Sufism.
  • Mahmud Ghazni (1000-27 AD).
  • Muhammed Ghori (1175-1206 AD).
  • Kingdoms of South India in Medieval India - Bahmani and Vijayanagara.

Delhi Sultanate (டெல்லி சுல்தானகம்) (1206 AD – 1526 AD)​

The following dynasties flourished one after the other during the Delhi Sultanate period:

  1. Slave Dynasty
  2. Khilji Dynasty
  3. Tughlaq Dynasty
  4. Sayyid Dynasty
  5. Lodi Dynasty

The Mughals (முகலாயர்கள்) (1526 AD – 1857 AD)​

  • The Great Mughals
  • The Later Mughals The Mughals from Babur (1526) to Aurangzeb (1707) were more powerful and hence were called the Great Mughals. The Mughals who ruled from 1707 to 1857 were called the Later Mughals.
  • Arrival of Europeans.
  • Other Kingdoms of North India – Marathas, Sikhs.

Modern India (நவீன இந்தியா) (1857 AD onwards)​

  • First War of Indian Independence (1857)
  • Formation of Indian National Congress (1885)
  • Formation of Muslim League (1906)
  • Non-Co-operation Movement (1920)
  • Civil Disobedience Movement (1930)
  • Quit India Movement (1942)
  • Partition of India (1947)
  • Constitutional Development of India (1946 – 1950)
  • Economic Development of India

Indus Valley Civilization (சிந்து சமவெளி நாகரிகம்)​

The Indus Valley Civilization was the first major civilization in South Asia, which spread across a vast area of land in present-day India and Pakistan (around 12 lakh sq. km). The time period of the mature Indus Valley Civilization is estimated between 2700 BC to 1900 BC, i.e., for 800 years. But the early Indus Valley Civilization had existed even before 2700 BC.

Features of Indus Valley Civilization (சிந்து சமவெளி நாகரிகத்தின் அம்சங்கள்)​

  • 2700 BC - 1900 BC, for 800 years.
  • On the valleys of the river Indus.
  • Also known as Harappan Civilization.
  • Beginning of city life.
  • Harappan sites discovered by – Dayaram Sahni (1921) – Montgomery district, Punjab, Pakistan.
  • Mohenjodaro discovered by – R.D. Bannerjee – Larkana district, Sind, Pakistan.
  • The city was divided into Citadel (west) and Lower Town (east).
  • Red pottery painted with designs in black.
  • Stone weights, seals, special beads, copper tools, long stone blades, etc.
  • Copper, bronze, silver, and gold were present.
  • Artificially produced – Faience.
  • Specialists for handicrafts.
  • Import of raw materials.
  • Plough was used.
  • Bodies were buried in wooden coffins, but in the later stages, the 'H symmetry culture' evolved where bodies were buried in painted burial urns.
  • Sugarcane was not cultivated. Horse and iron were not used.

Indus Valley Sites and Specialties (சிந்து சமவெளி தளங்கள் மற்றும் சிறப்புகள்)​

Harappa (ஹரப்பா)

  • Seals out of stones.
  • Citadel outside on the banks of river Ravi.

Mohenjodaro (மொஹஞ்சதாரோ)

  • Great Bath, Great Granary, Dancing Girl, Man with Beard, Cotton, Assembly hall.
  • The term means “mound of the dead”.
  • On the bank of the river Indus.
  • Believed to have been destructed by flood or invasion (destruction was not gradual).

Chanhudaro (சன்ஹுதாரோ)

  • On the bank of the river Indus. Discovered by Gopal Majumdar and Mackay (1931).
  • Pre-Harappan culture – Jhangar Culture and Jhukar Culture.
  • The only city without a citadel.

Kalibangan (காளிபங்கன்)

  • On the bank of the river Ghaggar, Rajasthan. Discovered by A. Ghosh (1953).
  • Fire altars.
  • Bones of a camel.
  • Evidence of ploughing.
  • Horse remains (even though Indus Valley people didn’t use horses).
  • Known as the third capital of the Indus Empire.

Lothal (லோதல்)

  • In Gujarat, near the Bhogava river. Discovered by S.R. Rao (1957).
  • Fire altars.
  • Beside a tributary of Sabarmati.
  • Storehouse.
  • Dockyard and earliest port.
  • Double burial.
  • Rice husk.
  • House had a front entrance (exception).

Ropar (ரோபார்)

  • Punjab, on the banks of the Sutlej river. Discovered by Y.D. Sharma (1955).
  • Dogs buried with humans.

Banawali (பனவாலி)

  • Haryana.
  • On the banks of the lost Saraswati river.
  • Barley cultivation.

Dholavira (தோலாவிரா)

  • The largest site in India until the discovery of Rakhigarhi.
  • Located in Rann of Kutch, Gujarat, in Khadir Beyt. Discovered by J.P. Joshi and Ravindra Singh (1990).
  • 3 parts + large open area for ceremonies.
  • Large letters of the Harappan script (signboards).

Religion of Indus Valley People (சிந்து சமவெளி மக்களின் மதம்)​

  • Pashupati Mahadev (Proto Siva).
  • Mother goddess.
  • Nature/Animal worship.
  • Unicorn, Dove, Peepal Tree, Fire.
  • Amulets.
  • Idol worship was practiced (not a feature of Aryans).
  • Did not build temples.
  • Similarity to Hindu religious practices. (Hinduism in its present form originated later).
  • No caste system.

Indus Valley Society and Culture (சிந்து சமவெளி சமூகம் மற்றும் கலாச்சாரம்)​

  • A systematic method of weights and measures (16 and its multiples).
  • Pictographic Script, Boustrophedon script – deciphering efforts by I. Mahadevan.
  • Equal status for men and women.
  • Economic inequality, not an egalitarian society.
  • Textiles – spinning and weaving.
  • 3 types – burial, cremation, and post-cremation were present, though burial was common.
  • Most people were Proto-Australoids and Mediterraneans (Dravidians), though Mongoloids, Nordics, etc., were present in the city culture.

Reasons for Decline of Indus Valley Civilization (சிந்து சமவெளி நாகரிகத்தின் வீழ்ச்சிக்கான காரணங்கள்)​

Though there are various theories, the exact reason is still unknown. The latest research from IIT Kharagpur and the Archaeological Survey of India suggests that a weaker monsoon might have been the cause for the decline of the Indus Valley Civilization. Environmental changes, a loss of power for the rulers of the Indus Valley (central administration) to maintain city life could also be a cause (Fairservice Theory).

Emperor Ashoka (பேரரசர் அசோகா)​

The Mauryans were a dynasty, more than 2300 years ago, with three important rulers – Chandragupta, his son Bindusara, and Bindusara’s son, Ashoka.

  • Chandragupta was supported by a wise man named Chanakya or Kautilya. Many of Chanakya’s ideas were written down in a book called the Arthashastra.
  • Megasthenes was an ambassador who was sent to the court of Chandragupta by the Greek ruler of West Asia, Seleucus Nicator.
  • Ashoka was one of the greatest rulers known to history and on his instructions, inscriptions were carved on pillars, as well as on rock surfaces.
  • Most of Ashoka’s inscriptions were in Prakrit and were written in the Brahmi script.
  • People in different parts of the empire spoke different languages.

Ruling the Empire (பேரரசு ஆட்சி)​

  • As the empire was so large, different parts were ruled differently.
  • The area around Pataliputra was under the direct control of the emperor. This meant that officials were appointed to collect taxes.
  • Spies kept a watch on the officials.
  • Other areas or provinces were ruled from a provincial capital such as Taxila or Ujjain.
  • Here, royal princes were often sent as governors, and local customs and rules were followed.

Ashoka's Dhamma (அசோகரின் தம்மம்)​

  • After Kalinga [present-day coastal Orissa], he gave up war.
  • He implemented Dhamma [Prakrit word].
  • Ashoka’s Dhamma did not involve the worship of a god or performance of a sacrifice. He felt that it was his duty to instruct his subjects, through the teachings of the Buddha.
  • He appointed officials, known as the Dhamma Mahamatta, who went from place to place teaching people about Dhamma.
  • Besides, Ashoka got his messages inscribed on rocks and pillars, instructing his officials to read his message to those who could not read it themselves.
  • He also sent messengers to spread ideas about Dhamma to other lands, such as Syria, Egypt, Greece, and Sri Lanka.

The Great Wall of China (சீனாவின் பெரிய சுவர்)​

  • Somewhat before the time of the Mauryan empire, about 2400 years ago, the building of this wall began.
  • It was meant to protect the northern frontier of the empire from pastoral people.
  • Additions to the wall were made over a period of 2000 years because the frontiers of the empire kept shifting.

Vital Villages, Thriving Towns (முக்கிய கிராமங்கள், வளரும் நகரங்கள்)​

  • The use of iron in the subcontinent began about 3000 years ago.
  • Kings and kingdoms could not have existed without the support of flourishing villages.
  • Some of the earliest works in Tamil, known as Sangam literature, were composed around 2300 years ago. These texts were called Sangam because they were supposed to have been composed and compiled in assemblies (known as sangams) of poets that were held in the city of Madurai.
  • Jatakas were stories that were probably composed by ordinary people and then written down and preserved by Buddhist monks.
  • We do not have remains of palaces, markets, or homes of ordinary people. Perhaps some are yet to be discovered by archaeologists.
  • Another way of finding out about early cities is from the accounts of sailors and travelers who visited them.
  • Crafts included extremely fine pottery, known as the Northern Black Polished Ware. It is so named because it is generally found in the northern part of the subcontinent. It is usually black in colour and has a fine sheen.
  • Many crafts persons and merchants now formed associations known as shrenis.
  • These shrenis of crafts persons provided training, procured raw material, and distributed the finished product.
  • Shrenis also served as banks.

Traders, Kings and Pilgrims (வர்த்தகர்கள், அரசர்கள் மற்றும் யாத்ரீகர்கள்)​

  • The Sangam poems mention the Muvendar. This is a Tamil word meaning three chiefs, used for the heads of three ruling families, the Cholas, Cheras, and Pandyas, who became powerful in south India around 2300 years ago.
  • Each of the three chiefs had two centers of power: one inland, and one on the coast. Of these six cities, two were very important: Puhar or Kaveripattinam, the port of the Cholas, and Madurai, the capital of the Pandyas.
  • The chiefs did not collect regular taxes. Instead, they demanded and received gifts from the people.
  • Around 200 years later, a dynasty known as the Satavahanas became powerful in western India.
  • The most important ruler of the Satavahanas was Gautamiputra Shri Satakarni.
  • He and other Satavahana rulers were known as lords of the Dakshinapatha, literally the route leading to the south.

The Silk Route & The Kushanas (பட்டுச் சாலை & குஷானர்கள்)​

  • Some people from China who went to distant lands on foot, horseback, and on camels, carried silk with them. The paths they followed came to be known as the Silk Route.
  • Some kings tried to control large portions of the route. This was because they could benefit from taxes, tributes, and gifts that were brought by traders traveling along the route. In return, they often protected the traders who passed through their kingdoms from attacks by robbers.
  • The best-known of the rulers who controlled the Silk Route were the Kushanas, who ruled over central Asia and north-west India around 2000 years ago.
  • Their two major centers of power were Peshawar and Mathura. Taxila was also included in their kingdom.
  • During their rule, a branch of the Silk Route extended from Central Asia down to the seaports at the mouth of the river Indus, from where silk was shipped westwards to the Roman Empire.
  • The Kushanas issued gold coins. These were used by traders along the Silk Route.

The Spread of Buddhism (பௌத்தத்தின் பரவல்)​

  • The most famous Kushana ruler was Kanishka, who ruled around 1900 years ago.
  • He organized a Buddhist council, where scholars met and discussed important matters.
  • Ashvaghosha, a poet who composed the Buddhacharita, the biography of the Buddha, lived in his court. He and other Buddhist scholars now began writing in Sanskrit.
  • A new form of Buddhism, known as Mahayana Buddhism, was now developed.
  • Here it has 2 distinct features: (1) Earlier, the Buddha’s presence was shown in sculpture by using certain signs. Now, statues are made. From Mathura and Taxila. (2) Belief in Bodhisattvas is considered. Earlier, once they attained enlightenment, they could live in complete isolation and meditate in peace. Now they remain in the world to teach and help others. This type of worship was prevalent throughout Central Asia, China, and later to Korea and Japan.
  • Traders may have halted in cave monasteries during their travels.
  • The older form of Buddhism, known as Theravada Buddhism, was more popular in other areas of South-East Asia, including Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand, and Indonesia.
  • Famous Chinese Buddhist pilgrims were Fa Xian, who came to the subcontinent about 1600 years ago, Xuan Zang, who came around 1400 years ago, and I-Qing, who came about 50 years after.

Bhakti (பக்தி)​

  • These were contemporaries of other religions that became central features of later Hinduism and gained importance.
  • Anyone, whether rich or poor, belonging to the so-called ‘high’ or ‘low’ castes, man or woman, could follow the path of Bhakti.
  • The idea of Bhakti is present in the Bhagavad Gita.
  • Bhakti systems emphasize devotion and individual worship of a god or goddess, rather than the performance of elaborate sacrifices.
  • Once this idea was accepted, artists made beautiful images of these deities.