Indian History Timeline (இந்திய வரலாறு காலவரிசை)
The following is a comprehensive overview of the key periods and events in Indian history, from ancient civilizations to the struggle for independence.
Ancient India (பண்டைய இந்தியா)
Indus Valley Civilization (சிந்து சமவெளி நாகரிகம்)
Important cities
| City | River | Archaeological Importance |
|---|
| Harappa | Ravi | A row of 6 Granaries, Mother goddess figurines |
| Mohenjodaro | Indus | Great Granary, Great bath, Image of Pashupati Mahadeva, Image of Bearded man and Bronze image of a woman dancer |
| Lothal | Bhogava | Port city, Double burial, Terracotta horse figurines. |
| Chanhudaro | Indus | City without a citadel |
| Dholavira | Indus | City divided into 3 parts. |
| Kalibangan | Ghaggar | Bangle factory, Toy carts, Bones of camel |
Buddhism (பௌத்தம்)
Gautama Buddha and Buddhism (563 BC - 483 BC)
Important events in the life of Buddha:
| Events | Places | Symbols |
|---|
| Janma (Birth) | Lumbini | Lotus and Bull |
| Mahabhinishkramana (Renunciation) | - | Horse |
| Nirvana (Enlightenment) | Bodh gaya | Bodhi Tree |
| Dharmachakra Pravartana (First Sermon) | Sarnath | Wheel |
| Mahaparinirvana (Death) | Kusinagar | Stupa |
- Madhya Marga - to avoid the excess of both luxury and austerity.
- Triratnas - Buddha, Dharma and Sangha.
Buddhist Councils
| Council | Patronage | Presidency | Important Remarks |
|---|
| 1st council - Rajgriha, 400 BC | Ajatshatru | Mahakashyapa | The Buddhist Canon as it exists today was settled at this Council and preserved as an oral tradition. |
| 2nd council - Vaishali, 383 BC | Kalasoka | Sabakami | First schism occurs in which the Mahasanghika school parts ways with the Sthaviravadins and the Theravadins. |
| 3rd council - Patliputra, 250 BC | Ashoka | Moggaliputta Tissa | Abhidhamma Pitaka was established. |
| 4th council - Kashmir, 72 AD | Kanishka | Vasumitra | Buddhism got divided into Mahayana & Hinayana. |
Jainism (சமணம்)
Mahavira (599 BC - 527 BC)
- Five vows of Jainism:
- Ahimsa - non-violence
- Satya - do not speak a lie
- Asteya - do not steal
- Aparigraha - do not acquire property
- Brahmacharya - celibacy
- Three main principles:
- Ahimsa
- Anekantavada
- Aparigraha
- Triratnas of Jainism:
- Right faith - Samayak Shradha
- Right Knowledge - Samayak Jnan
- Right Conduct - Samayak karma
- Sects:
- Shwetambars - Sthulabhadra - People who put on white robes.
- Digambars - Bhadrabahu - They have a naked attire.
Vedic Literature (வேத இலக்கியம்)
- The Rig Veda: Collection of hymns, oldest of all vedas. Also contains the famous Gayatri Mantra.
- Samveda: Rhythmic compilation of hymns for Rigveda. Book for Chants.
- The Yajur Veda: Book of sacrificial prayers, rituals of yajnas.
- Atharvaveda: Mantras for magic spells.
- Upanishads: Literary meaning is 'Satra' (to sit near master's feet) in which Guru offers a band of knowledge to their disciples.
- Satyameva Jayate is taken from "Mundaka Upanishad."
Important Dynasties (முக்கிய வம்சங்கள்)
- Haryanka Dynasty (544 BC - 412 BC): Bimbisara, Ajatshatru and Udayin.
- Shishunaga Dynasty (412 BC - 342 BC): Shisunga and Kalashoka.
- Nanda Dynasty (344 BC - 323 BC).
- Mauryan Dynasty (322 - 185 BC):
- Chandragupta Maurya (322 - 297 BC).
- Bindusara (298 - 273 BC): Known to Greeks as Amitrochates and he patronized the Ajivika sect.
- Ashoka (269 - 232 BC): Known as 'Devanampriya Priyadarsi'. Fought the Kalinga war in 261 BC. Ashokan inscriptions were deciphered by James Princep.
- Later Mauryas.
- Sunga Dynasty (185 BC - 73 BC).
- Kanva dynasty (73 BC - 28 BC).
- Satavahana dynasty (60 BC - 225 AD).
- Gupta Age (319 - 540 AD):
- Founder: Sri Gupta.
- Chandragupta I (319 - 334 AD): First great ruler, assumed the title Maharajadhiraja. Started the Gupta Era. Issued gold coins (Dinaras).
- Samudragupta (335 - 380 AD): Called the Napoleon of India.
- Chandragupta II (380 - 412 AD): Adopted the title Vikramaditya. Chinese pilgrim Fa-Hsien visited during his period.
- Kumaragupta - I (413 - 455 AD): Adopted the title of Mahendraditya. Founded Nalanda University.
- Skandagupta (455 - 467 AD): Restored Sudarshana Lake.
Sangam Period (சங்க காலம்)
The Sangam period is the period in the history of ancient Tamil Nadu spanning from c. 3rd century BC to c. 3rd century AD.
Three early kingdoms
| Kingdom | Capital | Port | Emblem | Famous Ruler |
|---|
| Cheras | Vanji - Modern Kerala | Muzuri and Tondi | Bow | Senguttuvan |
| Cholas | Uraiyur and Puhar | Kaveripattinam/Puhar. They had an efficient Navy | Tiger | Karikalan |
| Pandyas | Madurai | Korkai for Pearl Fishing | Fish | Nedunzheriyan |
Foreign Invasions in India (இந்தியாவில் வெளிநாட்டுப் படையெடுப்புகள்)
- Iranian Invasion - 518 BC: Iranian ruler Darius penetrated into NW India in 516 BC and annexed Punjab, West of Indus and Sindh.
- Alexander's Invasion: He defeated the last king of the line of Darius, Xerxes in 333 BC and 331 BC.
- The Indo-Greeks: Menander (165-145 BC) was the most famous ruler who was converted to Buddhism by Nagasena.
- The Shakas (1st BC - 4th AD): Replaced Indo-Greeks. Vikrama Samvat started in 57 BC when a king called Vikramaditya in Ujjain defeated the Shakas. Rudradaman I (AD 130-150) was a famous king.
- The Parthians: Originally from Iran, they replaced the Shakas in NW India.
- The Kushans: Nomadic people of Central Asia. Kanishka started the Saka era in 78 AD.
Chalukyas and Pallavas (சாளுக்கியர்கள் மற்றும் பல்லவர்கள்)
- Chalukyas: The most famous king was Pulakeshin II (610-642). He defeated Harshavardhana on the banks of the Narmada.
- Pallavas: Kanchi was the capital. The famous Kailashanatha temple at Kanchi was built by Narasimhavarman II.
Medieval India (இடைக்கால இந்தியா)
Age of Three Empires (மூன்று பேரரசுகளின் காலம்) (8th to 10th Century)
- The Palas: Dominated Eastern India. Founded by Gopala. Patrons of Buddhism. Dharampala founded Vikramashila University.
- The Pratiharas: Dominated Western India and Upper Gangetic valley.
- The Rashtrakutas: Dominated Deccan. Founded by Dandi Durga. Krishna I built the rock-cut temple of Shiva at Ellora.
The Chola Empire (சோழப் பேரரசு)
- The empire was founded by Vijayalaya, a feudatory of Pallavas, in 850 AD.
- Rajaraja (985-1014) and Rajendra I (1014-1044) were the greatest Chola kings.
- Rajendra I assumed the title Gangaikondachola (the Chola conqueror of Ganga).
Delhi Sultanate (டெல்லி சுல்தானகம்)
Slave Dynasty (1206-1290)
| Year | Ruler | Important Facts |
|---|
| 1206 - 1210 | Qutbuddin Aibak | Constructed Quwat-ul-Islam mosque and Adhai din ka jhonpra. Started construction of Qutb Minar. |
| 1210 - 1236 | Iltutmish | Saved Delhi Sultanate from Mongol invasion. Setup Chahalgani system. Completed Qutub Minar. |
| 1236 - 1240 | Razia Sultana | The first and the only muslim lady who ever ruled India. |
| 1240 - 1266 | An era of weak rulers | - |
| 1266 - 1287 | Balban | Established Diwan-i-arz (military department). Adopted a policy of blood and iron. Insisted on Sijada and Paibos ceremonies. |
The Khaljis (1290-1320)
| Year | Rulers | Important Facts |
|---|
| 1290 - 1296 | Jalaluddin Khilji | Founder of the dynasty. |
| 1296 - 1316 | Alauddin Khilji | Introduced Dagh (branding of horse) and Chehra (descriptive roll of soldiers). Constructed Alai fort and Alai Darwaza. Amir Khusrau was his court poet. |
| 1316 - 1320 | Mubarak Khan | - |
| 1320 | Khusrau Khan | - |
Tughlaq Dynasty (1320-1412)
| Ruler | Period of Rule | Important facts |
|---|
| Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq | 1320-1325 | Founder of the dynasty. |
| Muhammad-bin Tughlaq | 1325-1351 | Known for 5 ambitious projects: Taxation in the Doab, Transfer of Capital, Token Currency, Khurasan Expedition, Qarachil Expedition. |
| Firoz Shah Tughlaq | 1351-1388 | Established Diwan-i-Khairat (for poor) and Diwan-i-Bundagan (for slaves). |
| After Firoz Shah Tughlaq | 1388-1414 | Timur Invasion (1398-99). |
Sayyid Dynasty (1414 - 1450)
| Ruler | Period of Rule |
|---|
| Khizr Khan | 1414-1421 |
| Mubarak Shah | 1421-1434 |
| Muhammad Shah | 1434-1443 |
| Alam Shah | 1443-1451 |
The Lodhi Dynasty (1451-1526 AD)
| Ruler | Period of Rule | Important facts |
|---|
| Bahlol Lodhi | 1451-88 | Founded the Lodhi dynasty. |
| Sikandar Lodhi | 1489-1517 | Shifted capital from Delhi to Agra, a city founded by him. |
| Ibrahim Lodhi | 1517-26 | Last king of Lodhi dynasty. Defeated by Babur in the first battle of Panipat (1526). |
Mughal Empire (முகலாயப் பேரரசு)
- Babur (1526 - 1530): Fought Battle of Khanwa (1527) against Rana Sanga. Composed Tuzuk-i-Baburi.
- Humayun (1530 - 1540 and 1555 - 1556): Defeated by Shershah Suri in Battle of Chausa (1539). His biography, Humayun Namah, was written by his sister Gulbadan Begum.
- Sher Shah Suri (Sur Empire): Constructed the Grand Trunk Road.
- Akbar (1556 - 1605): Patron of men of eminence like Abul Fazal and Birbal. Raja Todarmal was his finance minister. Introduced Mansabdari System. Built Agra fort, Fatehpur Sikri, and Buland Darwaza.
- Jahangir (1605 - 1627): Established Zanjir-il-Adal (Chain of Justice). Executed fifth Sikh Guru, Guru Arjun Dev. Received William Hawkins. Built Shalimar and Nishant Gardens in Srinagar.
- Shah Jahan (1628 - 1658): His period is known as the Golden Age of Mughal Empire. Built Taj Mahal, Red Fort (Delhi), Jama Masjid (Delhi), and the Peacock Throne.
- Aurangzeb (1658 - 1707): Known as 'Zinda Pir' (living saint). Executed 9th Sikh Guru, Guru Teg Bahadur. Built Bibi ka Makbara and Moti Masjid (in Red Fort).
- Later Mughals (1707- 1857): Period of decline and disintegration.
British India & Freedom Struggle (பிரிட்டிஷ் இந்தியா மற்றும் சுதந்திரப் போராட்டம்)
The Great Revolt of 1857 (1857-ஆம் ஆண்டு பெரும் புரட்சி)
Famous Leaders of the revolt:
- Delhi: General Bakht Khan (real power), Bahadur Shah (nominal head).
- Kanpur: Nana Saheb, supported by Tantia Tope and Azimullah.
- Lucknow: Begum Hazrat Mahal of Awadh.
- Bihar: Kunwar Singh and Amar Singh.
- Jhansi: Rani Lakshmi Bai.
- Brahmo Samaj (1828): Founded by Raja Rammohan Roy to preach monotheism. He helped abolish Sati in 1829.
- Young Bengal Movement: Founded by Henry Vivian Derozio.
- Arya Samaj (1875): Founded by Swami Dayanand Saraswati. Wrote Satyartha Prakash.
- Prarthana Samaj (1867): Founded by Dr. Atmaram Pandurang.
- Ramakrishna Mission (1897): Founded by Swami Vivekananda.
- Theosophical Society (1875): Founded by Madam H.P. Blavatsky and Henry Steel Olcott. Led by Annie Besant in India from 1893.
- Satyashodhak Samaj (1873): Founded by Jyotiba Phule to fight against the caste system.
- Servants of India Society (1915): Formed by Gopal Krishna Gokhale.
Indian National Congress (INC) (இந்திய தேசிய காங்கிரஸ்)
Founded in 1885 by Allan Octavian Hume. The first session was held in Bombay, attended by 72 delegates.
Important Sessions of Indian National Congress
| Year | Venue | President | Remarks |
|---|
| 1885 | Bombay | W.C. Bannerji | First session. |
| 1886 | Calcutta | Dadabhai Naoroji | - |
| 1887 | Madras | Badruddin Tyyabji | First Muslim President. |
| 1888 | Allahabad | George Yule | First English President. |
| 1905 | Banaras | G.K. Gokhale | - |
| 1906 | Calcutta | Dadabhai Naoroji | - |
| 1907 | Surat | Rasbehari Ghosh | Congress split (Moderates & Extremists). |
| 1916 | Lucknow | A.C. Majumdar | Re-union of Congress; Lucknow Pact with Muslim League. |
| 1917 | Calcutta | Annie Besant | First woman President. |
| 1924 | Belgaum | M.K. Gandhi | Only session presided over by Gandhi. |
| 1925 | Kanpur | Sarojini Naidu | First Indian woman President. |
| 1929 | Lahore | J.L. Nehru | Poorna Swaraj resolution was passed. |
| 1931 | Karachi | Vallabhbhai Patel | Resolution on Fundamental Rights and National Economic Program. |
| 1938 | Haripura | S.C. Bose | National Planning Committee set up under J. L. Nehru. |
| 1939 | Tripuri | S. C. Bose (resigned) | Rajendra Prasad appointed after Bose's resignation. |
| 1946 | Meerut | Acharya J.B. Kriplani | President at the time of independence. |
| 1948 | Jaipur | Dr. Pattabhi Sitaramayya | - |
Indian National Movement (1905-1916) (இந்திய தேசிய இயக்கம்)
- Extremist Leaders: Lala Lajpat Rai, Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Bipin Chandra Pal, Aurobindo Ghosh.
- Partition of Bengal (1905): Announced by Lord Curzon.
- Swadeshi Movement (1905): Protest against the partition, which was reversed in 1911.
- Formation of Muslim League (1906): Founded by Muhammad Ali Jinnah, Aga Khan III, Khwaja Salimullah.
- Surat Session (1907): INC split into Extremists and Moderates.
- Morley-Minto Reforms (1909): Introduced separate electorates for Muslims.
- Ghadar Party of India (1913): Formed by Lala Hardayal, Taraknath Das, and Sohan Singh Bhakna in San Francisco.
- Komagata Maru Incident (1914): A ship with Sikh and Punjabi immigrants was denied entry to Canada and forced to return to Calcutta, resulting in a clash and deaths.
- Lucknow Session (1916): Moderates and Extremists reunited. Congress and Muslim League signed the Lucknow Pact.
- Home Rule League Movement (1916): Started by Annie Besant and Bal Gangadhar Tilak.
The National Movement (1917-1947) (தேசிய இயக்கம்)
Emergence of Gandhi
- Champaran Satyagraha (1917): First civil disobedience movement by Gandhi.
- Kheda Satyagraha (1918): Protest against tax collection during a famine.
- Ahmedabad Mill Strike (1918): First hunger strike by Gandhi.
- Rowlatt Act (1919): Allowed arrest without trial.
- Jallianwala Bagh Massacre (13 April, 1919): General Dyer ordered troops to fire on a peaceful gathering.
- Khilafat Movement (1920): Supported the Caliph of Turkey, merged with the Non-Cooperation Movement.
- Non-Cooperation Movement (1920-1922): Called off after the Chauri Chaura incident.
- Swaraj Party (1923): Formed by Motilal Nehru and Chittaranjan Das.
- Simon Commission (1927): All-British commission to review the 1919 Act, boycotted by Indians.
- Nehru Report (1928): A draft constitution for India prepared by a committee chaired by Motilal Nehru.
- Civil Disobedience Movement (1930-1934): Launched with the Dandi March to break the salt laws.
- Round Table Conferences:
- First (1930): Boycotted by Congress.
- Second (1931): Attended by Gandhi after the Gandhi-Irwin Pact.
- Third (1932): Boycotted by Congress.
- Poona Pact (1932): Agreement between Dr. Ambedkar and Gandhi on representation for depressed classes.
- Government of India Act (1935): Introduced provincial autonomy and a federal structure.
- Cripps Mission (1942): Proposed Dominion Status after the war; rejected as a "post-dated cheque" by Gandhi.
- Quit India Movement (1942): INC passed the resolution on August 8, 1942. Gandhi gave the call of 'do or die'.
- Cabinet Mission (1946): Proposed the formation of a Union of India and a constituent assembly.
- Mountbatten Plan (June 3, 1947): Plan for the partition of India.
- Indian Independence Act (July 18, 1947): Formalized the partition of India and Pakistan, effective August 15, 1947.
Advent of Europeans in India (இந்தியாவில் ஐரோப்பியர்களின் வருகை)
| Year | Company | Headquarters |
|---|
| 1498 | Portuguese East India company | Cochin and Goa |
| 1600 | English East India company | Madras, Calcutta and Bombay |
| 1602 | Dutch East India company | Pulicat, Nagapattinam |
| 1616 | Danish East India company | Serampore |
| 1664 | French East India company | Pondicherry |
Indian Monuments and Builders (இந்திய நினைவுச் சின்னங்களும் அவற்றைக் கட்டியவர்களும்)
| Monument | Place | Built by | Year/Century |
|---|
| Agra Fort | Agra (Uttar Pradesh) | Akbar | 1573 AD |
| Agra city | Agra (Uttar Pradesh) | Sikandar Lodi | - |
| Aram Bagh | Agra (Uttar Pradesh) | Babur | 1528 AD |
| Akbar's Tomb | Sikandra, Agra (UP) | Akbar and Jahangir | 1613 AD |
| Tomb of Itmad-Ud-Daula | Agra (Uttar Pradesh) | Noor Jahan | 1628 AD |
| Jama Masjid | Agra (Uttar Pradesh) | Shahjahan | 1648 AD |
| Deewan-e- Khas | Agra Fort, Agra (UP) | Shahjahan | - |
| Shish Mahal | Agra (Uttar Pradesh) | Shahjahan | 1632 AD |
| Moti Masjid | Agra Fort, Agra (UP) | Shahjahan | 1635 AD |
| Taj Mahal | Agra (Uttar Pradesh) | Shahjahan | 1653 AD |
| Bada Imambara | Lucknow (Uttar Pradesh) | Asaf-ud-daula | 1785 AD |
| Fatehpur Sikri | Agra (Uttar Pradesh) | Akbar | 16th century |
| Rock cut temple | Mamallapuram (TN) | Mahendravarman-I | 8th century |
| Shore temple | Mamallapuram (TN) | Narasimhavarman-II | 8th century |
| Kailasanathar Temple | Kanchipuram (TN) | Narasimhavarman-II | 685-705 AD |
| Brihadeshwara Temple | Tanjore (Tamil Nadu) | Rajaraja Chola I | 1010 AD |
| Gangaikondacholapuram | Gangaikonda cholapuram (TN) | Rajendra I | 12th century |
| Saint George Fort | Chennai (Tamil Nadu) | East India Company | 1644 AD |
| Hawa Mahal | Jaipur (Rajasthan) | Maharaja Pratap Singh | 1799 AD |
| Vijaya Stambha | Chittorgarh (Rajasthan) | Maharana Kumbha | 1448 AD |
| Char-Minar | Hyderabad (Telangana) | Quli Qutub Shah | 1591 AD |
| Golconda Fort | Hyderabad (Telangana) | Qutub Shahi rulers | 16th century |
| Ajanta & Ellora Caves | Aurangabad (Maharashtra) | Gupta & Rashtrakuta rulers | 4-10th century |
| Bibi Ka Maqbara | Aurangabad (Maharashtra) | Azam Shah | 1661 AD |
| Gateway Of India | Mumbai (Maharashtra) | British Govt. | 20th century |
| Vikramashila Monastery | Bihar | Dharma Pala | 8th century |
| Nalanda University | Bihar | Kumaragupta I | - |
| Purana Qila | Delhi | Sher Shah Suri | 16th century |
| Qutub Minar | Delhi | Qutubuddin Aibak | 1193 AD |
| Humayun's Tomb | Delhi | Humayun's wife | 1533 AD |
| Red Fort | Delhi | Shahjahan | 1639 AD |
| Jama Masjid | Delhi | Shahjahan | 1656 AD |
| India Gate | New Delhi | Edwin Lutyens (Architect) | - |
| Gol Gumbaz | Bijapur, Karnataka | Muhammad Adil Shah | 1656 AD |
| Golden Temple | Amritsar (Punjab) | Guru Ramdas | 1577 AD |
| Sun Temple | Konark (Odisha) | Narasimhadeva I | 1250 AD |
| Sanchi Stupa | Sanchi, Madhya Pradesh | Ashoka | 3rd Century BC |
Chronology of Important Events (முக்கிய நிகழ்வுகளின் காலவரிசை)
Ancient India
| Year/Period | Event | Importance |
|---|
| 2500 BC | Harappan Phase | Bronze age civilization, development of Urban culture. |
| 1500-1000 BC | Early Vedic period | Rig Veda period. |
| 1000-500 BC | Later Vedic period | Growth of 2nd Urban phase, Mahajanapadhas. |
| 563 BC | Birth of Gautama Buddha | Buddhism established. |
| 540 BC | Birth of Mahavira | 24th Tirthankara of Jainism. |
| 326 BC | Macedonian Invasion | Direct contact between Greek and India. |
| 322-185 BC | Mauryan Period | Political unification of India, Ashoka's Dhamma policy. |
| 3rd BC - 3rd AD | Sangam age | Rule of Cheras, Cholas and Pandyas. |
| 319-540 AD | The Gupta Age | The golden age of India, development of art and literature. |
Medieval India
| Year/Period | Event | Importance |
|---|
| 712 AD | First Muslim Invasion | Mahmud Bin Qasim invaded India. |
| 850-1279 AD | The Cholas | Capital at Tanjore, epitome of Dravidian Architecture. |
| 998-1030 AD | First Turk invasion | Mahmud of Ghazni. |
| 1175-1206 AD | Second Turk invasion | Mahmud of Ghori. |
| 1206-1526 AD | The Sultanate Period | Rule of Slave, Khalji, Tughlaq, Sayyid, and Lodhi dynasties. |
| 1336-1650 AD | Vijaynagar Kingdom | Founded by Harihara and Bukka; Krishna Deva Raya's rule. |
| 1526 AD | 1st Battle of Panipat | Babur defeated Ibrahim Lodhi, founding the Mughal Empire. |
Mughal Empire & Modern India
| Year/Period | Event | Importance |
|---|
| 1526-1707 AD | Great Mughals | Rule of Babur, Humayun, Akbar, Jehangir, Shahjahan, Aurangazeb. |
| 1707-1857 AD | Later Mughals | Decline and disintegration of the Mughal empire. |
| 1757 AD | Battle of Plassey | British victory over Sirajuddaulah. |
| 1764 AD | Battle of Buxar | British victory cementing their power in Bengal. |
| 1766-1799 AD | Anglo-Mysore Wars | Wars between the British and Haider Ali/Tipu Sultan. |
| 1857 AD | First War of Independence | Widespread revolt against the British East India Company. |
| 1885 AD | Formation of Congress | A O Hume founded the Indian National Congress. |
| 1905 AD | Bengal Partition | Lord Curzon announced the partition; Swadeshi movement begins. |
| 1915 AD | Gandhi in India | Mahatma Gandhi returns from South Africa. |
| 1919 AD | Jallianwala Massacre | British troops fire on a large crowd of unarmed Indians. |
| 1920-22 AD | Non-cooperation movement | Nationwide peaceful protest led by Gandhi. |
| 1930 AD | Dandi March | Start of the Civil Disobedience Movement. |
| 1942 AD | Quit India movement | Gandhi's call for 'Do or Die'. |
| 1947 AD | Indian Independence Act | Partition of India and Independence from British rule. |